- 2.1. Characteristics of observation as a method of psychological research
- 2.2. Organization of psychological observation
- 2.3. Surveillance program
- 2.4. The use of observation in psychological and pedagogical research
Topic 2. Observation method
2.1. Characteristics of observation as a method of psychological research
Observation
– this is a purposeful, organized perception and recording of the behavior of the object under study. The observer’s task, as a rule, is not associated with interfering in “life” by creating special conditions for the manifestation of the observed process or phenomenon.
Observation differs from passive contemplation of the surrounding reality in that it: a) is subordinated to a specific goal; b) carried out according to a specific plan; c) equipped with objective means to carry out the process and record the results.
Observation is an active form of sensory cognition, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about objects or check initial assumptions associated with them. Observation is historically the first scientific method of psychological research.
The term "observation" is used in three different meanings: 1) observation as an activity; 2) observation as a method; 3) observation as a technique.
Observation as an activity
refers to some areas of social practice. The power system operator observes the readings of instruments, the shift attendant inspects the equipment according to a certain plan, the doctor examines the patient, the investigator observes the behavior of the suspect, etc. In contrast to observation as a scientific method, observation as an activity is aimed at serving practical activities: observation is necessary for the doctor to making a diagnosis and clarifying the treatment process; to the investigator - to put forward and verify versions and solve the crime; to the energy system operator - to make decisions on the distribution of electricity flows.
Observation as a method
science includes a system of principles of cognitive activity, provisions on the essence and specificity of psychological observation, on its capabilities and limitations, on instrumental equipment and types of human activity in the role of an observer. Observation as a method of psychology is distinguished by its universality, i.e., its applicability to the study of a wide range of phenomena, flexibility, i.e., the ability to change the “field of coverage” of the object being studied as necessary, and to put forward and test additional hypotheses during the course of observation. To conduct observational research, minimal equipment is required.
The specificity of observation as a scientific method of psychology lies in the type of attitude towards the object of study (non-interference) and the presence of direct visual or auditory contact between the observer and the observed. The main characteristics of observation as a method of psychology are purposefulness, planning, and dependence on the theoretical concepts of the observer.
Observation as a technique
(observation technique) takes into account the specific task, situation, conditions and observation tools. An observation methodology is understood as a socially fixed, clearly stated for others, objectively presented system for collecting and processing empirical data, which is adequate to a clearly defined range of tasks. In foreign psychological literature, a synonym for “observation technique” is “observation technique”. The observation technique contains the most complete description of the observation procedure and includes: a) selection of the situation and object for observation; b) an observation program (scheme) in the form of a list of signs (aspects) of observed behavior and units of observation with a detailed description of them; c) the method and form of recording the observation results; d) description of the requirements for the observer’s work; e) description of the method of processing and presenting the obtained data.
Object and subject of observation.
The object of
external observation can be an individual, a group of people or a community. The object of observation is characterized by uniqueness, non-repetition, very short or very long duration of mental phenomena.
The main problem that arises when conducting observation is the effect of the presence of the observer on the behavior of the observed. To minimize this impact, the observer must “get familiar,” that is, be more often present in the environment, engage in some activity, and not focus on what is being observed. In addition, it is possible to explain the presence of the observer for some purpose acceptable to the observed, or to replace the human observer with recording equipment (video camera, voice recorder, etc.), or to conduct observation from an adjacent room through glass with one-way light conductivity (Gesell’s mirror). Modesty, tact, and good manners of the observer weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.
There is also a reception included
observations when the observer is an actual member of the group. However, this technique entails an ethical problem - the duality of position and the inability to observe oneself as a member of the group.
Subject
observations can only be external, exteriorized components of mental activity:
– motor components of practical and gnostic actions;
– movements, movements and stationary states of people (speed and direction of movement, contact, shocks, impacts);
– joint actions (groups of people);
– speech acts (their content, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of the lexical, grammatical, phonetic structure);
– facial expressions and pantomimes, expression of sounds;
– manifestations of some vegetative reactions (redness or paleness of the skin, changes in breathing rhythm, sweating).
When conducting observation, the difficulty arises of unambiguously understanding the internal, mental through observation of the external. In psychology, there is a polysemy of connections between external manifestations and subjective mental reality and a multi-level structure of mental phenomena, therefore the same behavioral manifestation can be associated with various mental processes.
Observer position
in relation to the object of observation can be open or hidden. Participant observation can also be classified as open or hidden, depending on whether the observer reports the fact of observation or not.
A human observer has selectivity of perception, which is determined by his attitudes and general orientation of activity. A certain attitude activates perception and heightens sensitivity to significant influences, but an overly fixed attitude leads to bias. The general direction of activity can serve as an incentive to overestimate some facts and underestimate others (teachers pay attention to cognitive activity, coaches - to body features, dexterity of movements, tailors - to the cut of clothes, etc.).
There is also the phenomenon of projection of one’s own “I” onto observed behavior. By interpreting the behavior of another person, the observer transfers his own point of view to him. The individual characteristics of the observer (predominant modality of perception - visual, auditory, etc., ability to concentrate and distribute attention, memory capacity, cognitive style, temperament, emotional stability, etc.) also have a significant impact on the result of observation. A good observer needs special observation training, which allows him to somewhat reduce the influence of individual characteristics.
Depending on the situation, field observation, laboratory observation and provoked observation in natural conditions are distinguished. Field
observation is carried out in the natural conditions of life of the observed person; distortions of behavior in this case are minimal.
This type of observation is very labor-intensive, since the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control and therefore observation is most often of a wait-and-see nature. Laboratory
observation is carried out in a more convenient situation for the researcher, but artificial conditions can greatly distort human behavior.
Provoked
observation is carried out in natural conditions, but the situation is set by the researcher. In developmental psychology, this observation comes close to a natural experiment (observation during play, during classes, etc.).
2.2. Organization of psychological observation
By method of organization
distinguish between unsystematic and systematic observation.
Non-systematic
observation is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology.
What is important for the researcher here is to create some generalized picture of the phenomenon being studied, the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions. Systematic
observation is carried out according to plan. The researcher identifies certain behavioral features and records their manifestation in various conditions or situations.
There are also continuous and selective observations. With continuous
During observation, the researcher records all the features of behavior, and during
selective observation
, he pays attention only to certain behavioral acts, records their frequency, duration, etc.
Various methods of organizing observation have their advantages and disadvantages. Thus, with unsystematic observation, random phenomena can be described, so it is preferable to organize systematic observation in changing conditions. With continuous observation, it is impossible to completely record everything observed, so in this case it is advisable to use equipment or involve several observers. With selective observation, the influence of the observer’s attitude on its result is not excluded (he sees only what he wants to see). To overcome such influence, it is possible to involve several observers, as well as to alternately test both the main and competing hypotheses.
Depending on the purpose
Research can be distinguished between exploratory research and research aimed at testing hypotheses.
Exploratory
research is carried out at the beginning of the development of any scientific field, is carried out extensively, and has the goal of obtaining the most complete description of all phenomena inherent in this field, to cover it entirely.
If observation is used in such a study, it is usually continuous. Domestic psychologist M.Ya. Basov, the author of a classic work on observation methods, defines the goal of such observation as “to observe in general,” to observe everything that an object manifests itself in, without selecting any specific manifestations.[28] In some sources, such observation is called expectant.
An example of an exploratory study conducted on the basis of observation is the work of D.B. Elkonina and T.V. Dragunova.[29] The general goal of this study was to obtain a description of all manifestations of neoplasms in the mental development of a child in adolescence. Systematic, long-term observation was carried out to identify the actual behavior and activities of adolescents during lessons, preparation of homework, club work, various competitions, characteristics of behavior and relationships with friends, teachers, parents, facts related to interests, plans for the future, attitude towards oneself , claims and aspirations, social activity, reactions to success and failure. Value judgments, conversations between children, arguments, and remarks were recorded.
If the purpose of the study is specific and strictly defined, the observation is structured differently. In this case it is called exploring,
or
selective.
In this case, the content of the observation is selected, the observed is divided into units. An example is the study of the stages of cognitive development conducted by J. Piaget.[30] To study one of the stages, the researcher chose the child's manipulative games with toys that have a cavity. Observations have shown that the ability to insert one object into another occurs later than the motor skills required for this. At a certain age, a child cannot do this because he does not understand how one object can be inside another.
On the use of surveillance equipment
distinguish between direct and indirect (using observational instruments and means of recording results) observation. Surveillance equipment includes audio, photo and video equipment, surveillance cards. However, technical means are not always available, and the use of a hidden camera or voice recorder poses an ethical problem, since the researcher in this case encroaches on a person’s inner world without his consent. Some researchers consider their use unacceptable.
According to the method of chronological organization
distinguish between longitudinal, periodic and single observation.
Longitudinal
observation is carried out over a number of years and involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study.
The results of such observations are usually recorded in the form of diaries and widely cover the behavior, lifestyle, and habits of the observed person. Periodic
monitoring is carried out over certain, precisely defined periods of time.
This is the most common type of chronological organization of observation. Single,
or
one-time,
observations are usually presented in the form of a description of a single case. They can be either unique or typical manifestations of the phenomenon being studied.
Recording of observation results can be carried out during the observation process or after some time. In the latter case, as a rule, completeness, accuracy and reliability in recording the behavior of subjects suffer.
2.3. Surveillance program
The observation program (scheme) includes a list of observation units, language and form of description of the observed.
Selection of observation units.
After choosing an object and observation situation, the researcher faces the task of conducting observation and describing its results. Before observing, it is necessary to isolate from the continuous flow of an object’s behavior certain aspects of it, individual acts accessible to direct perception. The selected units of observation must be consistent with the purpose of the study and allow the results to be interpreted in accordance with the theoretical position. Units of observation can vary greatly in size and complexity.
Often the researcher cannot foresee in advance all the manifestations of the observed object, and then he indicates the most adequate goals for studying the category,
in accordance with which the observed activity is recorded.
(Categories are concepts denoting certain classes of phenomena.) They should have the same degree of generality, not overlap, and, if possible, exhaust all manifestations of activity. The highest level of conceptualization occurs if the categories form a system that covers all theoretically possible manifestations of the process being studied. Observation based on a system of categories is called systematized.
As an example, we can cite the structure of categories for describing the interaction of members of a small group when jointly solving a problem, proposed by the American psychologist R. Bales.[31] Bales divides all human behavior in this situation into 12 categories, divided into three socio-emotional areas: positive, negative and neutral. For example, the first category: “expresses solidarity, increases the status of another person, provides assistance, rewards,” the ninth category: “asks for advice on a direction, a possible course of action.” Subsuming a unit of observation under a certain category - the initial stage of interpretation - can be carried out during the process of observation.
When using categorized observation, it is possible to quantify the observed events. There are two main ways to obtain quantitative estimates during observation: 1) assessment by the observer of the intensity (severity) of the observed property, action - psychological scaling;
2) measuring the duration of the observed event -
timing.
Scaling in observation is carried out using the scoring method. Usually three- and ten-point scales are used. The score can be expressed not only as a number, but also as an adjective (“very strong, strong, average”, etc.). Sometimes a graphical form of scaling is used, in which the score is expressed by the value of a segment on a straight line, the extreme points of which mark the lower and upper points. For example, a scale for observing student behavior at school, developed by Ya. Strelyau to assess individual characteristics of a person, involves rating ten categories of behavior on a five-point scale and very accurately defines reactivity as a property of temperament.[32]
For timing in the process of direct observation, it is necessary: a) to be able to quickly isolate the desired unit from the observed behavior; b) establish in advance what is considered the beginning and what is the end of a behavioral act; c) have a chronometer. It should, however, be remembered that timing activities, as a rule, is unpleasant for a person and interferes with him.
Methods for recording observations.
General requirements for recording observations were formulated by M.Ya. Basov.[33]
1. The record must be factual, that is, every fact must be recorded in the form in which it actually existed.
2. The recording must include a description of the situation (subject and social) in which the observed event occurs (background recording).
3. The record must be complete to reflect the reality being studied in accordance with the purpose.
Based on the study of a large number of records by M.Ya. Basov was asked to distinguish between three main ways of verbally recording behavior: interpretive, generalizing-descriptive and photographic recordings. Using all three types of records allows you to collect the most detailed material.
Recording non-standardized observations.
In exploratory research, preliminary knowledge about the reality being studied is minimal, so the observer’s task is to record manifestations of the object’s activity in all their diversity.
This is a photographic
record. However, it is necessary to include elements of interpretation, since it is almost impossible to reflect the situation “impartially”. “One or two well-aimed words from a researcher are better than a stream of long descriptions, where ‘you can’t see the forest for the trees,’” wrote A.P. Boltunov.[34]
Typically, exploratory research uses the form of observational records in the form of a continuous protocol.
It must indicate the date, time, place, observation situation, social and objective environment, and, if necessary, the context of previous events. A continuous protocol is an ordinary sheet of paper on which recording is made without rubrics. For a complete recording, good concentration of the observer is necessary, as well as the use of shorthand or shorthand. A continuous protocol is used at the phase of clarifying the subject and situation of observation; on its basis, a list of observation units can be compiled.
In long-term field research conducted using the method of non-standardized observation, the form of recording is a diary.
It is carried out during multi-day observations in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for subsequent processing of records. To maintain the accuracy of observations over a long period of time, accuracy and uniformity of terminology must be observed. It is also recommended to keep diary entries directly, rather than from memory.
In a covert participant observation situation, data recording usually has to be done after the fact, since the observer does not have to reveal himself. In addition, as a participant in the events, he cannot write anything down. Therefore, the observer is forced to process observational material, summing up and generalizing homogeneous facts. Consequently, the observation diary uses generalizing descriptive
and
interpretative records.
However, at the same time, some of the most striking facts are reproduced by the observer relatively photographically, without processing, “as such and the only ones” (M.Ya. Basov).
Each observation diary entry should contain a short introduction to provide a better understanding of the behavior being recorded. It reflects the place, time, setting, situation, condition of others, etc. Along with the introduction, a conclusion may also be attached to the recording, which reflects the changes in the situation that occurred during the observation (the appearance of a significant person, etc.).
While maintaining complete objectivity when recording data, the observer must then express his attitude to the phenomena being described and his understanding of their meaning. Such notes must be clearly separated from observation notes and are therefore made in the margins of the diary.
Record standardized observations.
For categorized observations, two recording methods are used - symbolic recording and standard protocol.
When recording in symbols,
each category can be assigned designations - alphabetic, pictograms, mathematical symbols, which reduces recording time.
Standard Protocol
used in cases where the number of categories is limited and the researcher is only interested in the frequency of their occurrence (N. Flanders’ system for analyzing verbal interaction between teacher and student). This form of recording observation results has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the accuracy and completeness of recording manifestations, the disadvantages include the loss of “living tissue of interaction” (M.Ya. Basov).
The result of observation is a “behavioral portrait”. This result is very valuable in medical, psychotherapeutic, and advisory practice. The main parameters when drawing up a behavioral portrait based on observation are as follows:
1) individual features of appearance that are important for the characteristics of the observed person (clothing style, hairstyle, how much he strives in his appearance to “be like everyone else” or wants to stand out, attract attention, whether he is indifferent to his appearance or gives it special meaning, what elements of behavior confirm this, in what situations);
2) pantomime (posture, gait features, gestures, general stiffness or, conversely, freedom of movement, characteristic individual poses);
3) facial expressions (general facial expression, restraint, expressiveness, in which situations facial expressions are significantly enlivened and in which they remain constrained);
4) speech behavior (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconism, stylistic features, content and culture of speech, intonation richness, inclusion of pauses in speech, tempo of speech);
5) behavior towards other people (position in a team and attitude towards this, ways of establishing contact, nature of communication - business, personal, situational communication, communication style - authoritarian, democratic, self-oriented, interlocutor-oriented, positions in communication - “on equal terms”, from above, from below, the presence of contradictions in behavior - demonstration of various opposite in meaning ways of behavior in similar situations);
6) behavioral manifestations (in relation to oneself - to appearance, personal belongings, shortcomings, advantages and opportunities);
7) behavior in psychologically difficult situations (when performing a responsible task, in conflict, etc.);
behavior in primary activities (play, study, professional activity);
9) examples of characteristic individual verbal cliches, as well as statements characterizing their horizons, interests, and life experience.
2.4. The use of observation in psychological and pedagogical research
The widespread use of the observation method to study the mental development of children is due to the characteristics of the object of study. A small child cannot be a participant in psychological experiments, unable to give a verbal account of his actions, thoughts, emotions and actions.
The accumulation of data on the mental development of infants and young children has made it possible to combine them into certain systems.
Development tables of A. Gesell
cover four main areas of child behavior: motor skills, language, adaptive and personal-social behavior. Data obtained through direct observation of children's responses to common toys and other objects are supplemented by information reported by the child's mother. American psychologist A. Anastasi[35], in his authoritative manual on psychological testing, notes the lack of standardization of these development tables, but points out their usefulness as a supplement to medical examinations carried out by pediatricians and other specialists.
Methodology E. Frucht
[36] records the development of a child aged from 10 days to 12 months in the following categories: 1) visual orientation reactions; 2) auditory orientation reactions; 3) emotions and social behavior; 4) hand movements and actions with objects; 5) general movements; 6) speech understanding; 7) active speech; skills and abilities.
For each age, a list of categories (from two to seven) and a description of reactions characteristic of this age are given. For example, for the age of 1 month: general movements - lying on his stomach, trying to raise and hold his head (for 5 s); immediately raises his head after stroking his back, holds it for 5 s and lowers it. For the age of 3 months: general movements - lies on the stomach, leaning on the forearms and raising the head high (for 1 minute), immediately raises the head high, leaning on the forearms, the chest is raised, the legs lie quietly, maintains this position for 1 minute; holds the head in an upright position (in the arms of an adult); holds head straight for 30 s. With support under the armpits, firmly rests on a solid support with legs bent at the hip joint; when touching the support, straightens the legs at the knee joint and rests with both feet.
This scheme is not aimed at making a diagnosis, but only allows you to recognize the general picture of development and pay attention to some alarming symptoms.
Development cards by D. Lashley
[37] The author suggests using the following structural headings in the development card:
1) physical development, which covers both general movements, such as walking, climbing, and more subtle ones, for example, coordination of eye and hand movements when drawing and sculpting;
2) communication and speech development. These include expressive language and comprehension; 3) social development and play - include relationships with adults and children, how the child plays, his interests, and the ability to concentrate on these activities; 4) self-reliance and independence - the ability to do without the help of adults while eating, dressing, using the toilet, as well as the ability to help adults, participate in group activities and carry out routine assignments; 5) behavior. Sometimes included in heading 3 (social development) or 4 (independence), but this section is necessary to record the child’s difficulties and problems.
The structure of the development card is a list of points for each area of development. If a skill or skill has been formed, then an icon is placed on the card; if the data is uncertain, a “?” The results are not summed up at the end. This is a way to “photograph” a baby at some point in development for planning further measures for his upbringing, as well as for comparison with future “snapshots” of the same child.
Psychologists and speech therapists use the results of a child's development for the purpose of comparison with average indicators for children of a given age. Educators tend to compare later developmental results with earlier ones. If a child has developmental deviations, they are usually expressed in a decrease in the rate of development. For such children, special development cards are needed, which indicate more detailed stages and steps that the child goes through before mastering certain skills. They are not always marked as completed milestones for healthy children.
When choosing a development card, you should not strive to find a perfect example - one is unlikely to exist. Precisely formulated points on the card are less important than systematic observation of the child. The regularity of observations is called by D. Lashley the “method of time-based samples” and means conducting observations over pre-marked time periods. All entries related to one “slice” must be entered into the card within one week. If this is not possible, observation should be postponed.
Methods for observing “difficult” behavior by D. Lashley
[38] The author believes that in order to understand the child’s problem, one should conduct an observation and then draw a conclusion about how serious it is. It is quite easy to determine three main aspects of observation: 1) frequency - how often the problem occurs; 2) duration - how long the “difficult” behavior lasts in each case or for how long in a day such behavior appears typical; 3) intensity - the problem is not complicated, quite serious or very serious. Separately, it should be said about the frequency of observations. You can observe the child for several days, or you can simply count the number of manifestations of “difficult” behavior. Frequency counting in relation to such behavior sometimes brings unexpected results. Adults may decide that the child is naughty most of the day, but after observation it turns out that there are long periods during the day or even whole days when the child is not “difficult” at all.
Thus, on the basis of observation, it is possible to conduct both fundamental research in the field of child development and a huge number of applied research that helps to reveal and explain various phenomena of child development. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for a teacher, as it allows him to better understand his students.
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